Glaser et al. (2016), Academy of Management Journal

Managing the Risks of Proactivity: A Multilevel Study of Initiative and Performance in the Middle Management Context

Among 383 middle managers in a multinational, the tie between a tendency to take initiative and job performance was weaker for risk-takers, a gap that widened with high autonomy and narrowed in units with strong performance management.

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What the research saysShould change be top-down or bottom-up?

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