What the research says

What leadership style works best for middle managers?

The short answer

In the studies we mapped, transformational leadership comes out best, but every study here is a low- or medium-strength survey showing association. In two studies, middle managers' transformational leadership was linked to better frontline performance two levels down, and to supervisors below them feeling more in control and being more creative. One study of 38 UK manufacturers found transformational leadership effective at every level, transactional leadership only lower down, and hands-off leadership nowhere. In another, developing staff best predicted middle managers' effectiveness. And in one study, peers rated women's leadership less effective in Malaysia than in Australia.

Based on 6 studies from the Atlas of the Middle: 0 rated high strength, 1 medium, 5 low. Designs: survey (6).

It reaches down the line

In three Chinese organizations, middle managers' transformational leadership was linked to better frontline performance two levels down, both directly and by rubbing off on the supervisors in between. At a large joint venture in China, frontline supervisors whose middle managers led in a transformational way felt more in control of their work and were more creative.

Yang et al. (2010) · survey · MediumMiddle Manager Leadership and Frontline Employee Performance: Bypass, Cascading, and Moderating EffectsIn three Chinese organizations, middle managers' transformational leadership was linked to better frontline performance two levels down, both directly and by rubbing off on the supervisors in between.Tse et al. (2018) · survey · LowWhen and why does transformational leadership influence employee creativity? The roles of personal control and creative personalityAt a large foreign joint venture in China, frontline supervisors whose middle managers led in a transformational way felt more in control of their work and were more creative, with their own creative personality shaping that link.

Which styles work at which level

Using 360-degree ratings of 367 managers from 38 UK manufacturers, one study found transformational leadership effective at every level, transactional leadership only lower down, and hands-off leadership nowhere. In a Swedish multinational, upper managers showed inspiring, role-model leadership more often than middle managers did, and those behaviors were more strongly tied to their subordinates' job satisfaction.

Edwards & Gill (2012) · survey · LowTransformational leadership across hierarchical levels in UK manufacturing organizationsUsing 360-degree ratings of 367 managers from 38 UK manufacturers, the study found transformational leadership was effective at every level, transactional leadership only lower down, and hands-off leadership nowhere.Bruch & Walter (2007) · survey · LowLeadership in context: investigating hierarchical impacts on transformational leadershipIn a Swedish multinational, upper managers showed inspiring, role-model leadership more often than middle managers did, and those behaviors were more strongly tied to their subordinates' job satisfaction.

Developing staff

In 360-degree ratings of 49 Chinese middle managers, they focused most on delivering results and monitoring and least on innovating, rated themselves higher than others did, and developing staff best predicted effectiveness.

Vilkinas et al. (2009) · survey · LowPredictors of leadership effectiveness for Chinese managersIn 360-degree ratings of 49 Chinese middle managers, they focused most on delivering results and monitoring and least on innovating, rated themselves higher than others did, and developing staff best predicted effectiveness.

How leadership gets judged

Surveying 324 middle managers in Malaysia and Australia, the authors found women's leadership was rated less effective by peers in Malaysia than in Australia, which they link to cultural beliefs about women's roles.

Jogulu & Wood (2008) · survey · LowA cross‐cultural study into peer evaluations of women's leadership effectivenessSurveying 324 middle managers in Malaysia and Australia, the authors found women's leadership was rated less effective by peers in Malaysia than in Australia, which they link to cultural beliefs about women's roles.

What I take from it

My read is that how middle managers lead travels further down than their own team, so I would invest in how they lead, not only in what they are told to deliver. These are associations, so I hold that loosely.

This is my reading, Gabriel Lopez's, not a finding of the studies above.

Common questions

Is transformational leadership effective for middle managers?

In the surveys we mapped, it was associated with better outcomes. In three Chinese organizations, middle managers' transformational leadership was linked to better frontline performance two levels down, and among 38 UK manufacturers it was effective at every level.

Does hands-off leadership work?

Not in one study of 367 managers from 38 UK manufacturers, which found transformational leadership effective at every level, transactional leadership only lower down, and hands-off leadership nowhere.

Free guideThe 12 core answers in one 15-page PDFWhat the research says about change in the middle, with how strong the evidence is.Get the guide

Every summary on this page was written by Unfrozen from the study's abstract or full text and checked twice by independent AI reviewers. Loop coding is exploratory and AI-assisted, pending human verification. Spot an error? Email info@unfreeze.us and it gets fixed.